abstract_text: Refactorisation of the to_s method

[nit.git] / lib / core / text / abstract_text.nit

# This file is part of NIT ( http://www.nitlanguage.org ).
#
# This file is free software, which comes along with NIT.  This software is
# distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY;
# without  even  the implied warranty of  MERCHANTABILITY or  FITNESS FOR A
# PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  You can modify it is you want,  provided this header
# is kept unaltered, and a notification of the changes is added.
# You  are  allowed  to  redistribute it and sell it, alone or is a part of
# another product.

# Abstract class for manipulation of sequences of characters
module abstract_text

import native
import math
import collection
intrude import collection::array

in "C" `{
        #include <stdio.h>
        #include <stdlib.h>
        #include <string.h>
`}

# High-level abstraction for all text representations
abstract class Text
        super Comparable
        super Cloneable

        redef type OTHER: Text

        # Type of self (used for factorization of several methods, ex : substring_from, empty...)
        type SELFTYPE: Text

        # Gets a view on the chars of the Text object
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "hello".chars.to_a == ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
        # ~~~
        fun chars: SequenceRead[Char] is abstract

        # Gets a view on the bytes of the Text object
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "hello".bytes.to_a == [104, 101, 108, 108, 111]
        # ~~~
        fun bytes: SequenceRead[Int] is abstract

        # Number of characters contained in self.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "12345".length == 5
        # assert "".length == 0
        # assert "あいうえお".length == 5
        # ~~~
        fun length: Int is abstract

        # Number of bytes in `self`
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "12345".byte_length == 5
        # assert "あいうえお".byte_length == 15
        # ~~~
        fun byte_length: Int is abstract

        # Create a substring.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abcd".substring(1, 2)      ==  "bc"
        # assert "abcd".substring(-1, 2)     ==  "a"
        # assert "abcd".substring(1, 0)      ==  ""
        # assert "abcd".substring(2, 5)      ==  "cd"
        # assert "あいうえお".substring(1,3) ==  "いうえ"
        # ~~~
        #
        # A `from` index < 0 will be replaced by 0.
        # Unless a `count` value is > 0 at the same time.
        # In this case, `from += count` and `count -= from`.
        fun substring(from: Int, count: Int): SELFTYPE is abstract

        # Iterates on the substrings of self if any
        private fun substrings: Iterator[FlatText] is abstract

        # Is the current Text empty (== "")
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "".is_empty
        # assert not "foo".is_empty
        # ~~~
        fun is_empty: Bool do return self.length == 0

        # Returns an empty Text of the right type
        #
        # This method is used internally to get the right
        # implementation of an empty string.
        protected fun empty: SELFTYPE is abstract

        # Returns a copy of `self` as a Buffer
        fun to_buffer: Buffer is abstract

        # Gets the first char of the Text
        fun first: Char do return self.chars[0]

        # Access a character at `index` in the string.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abcd"[2]         == 'c'
        # ~~~
        fun [](index: Int): Char do return self.chars[index]

        # Gets the index of the first occurence of 'c'
        #
        # Returns -1 if not found
        fun index_of(c: Char): Int
        do
                return index_of_from(c, 0)
        end

        # Gets the last char of self
        fun last: Char do return self.chars[length-1]

        # Gets the index of the first occurence of ´c´ starting from ´pos´
        #
        # Returns -1 if not found
        fun index_of_from(c: Char, pos: Int): Int
        do
                var iter = self.chars.iterator_from(pos)
                while iter.is_ok do
                        if iter.item == c then return iter.index
                        iter.next
                end
                return -1
        end

        # Gets the last index of char ´c´
        #
        # Returns -1 if not found
        fun last_index_of(c: Char): Int
        do
                return last_index_of_from(c, length - 1)
        end

        # Return a null terminated char *
        fun to_cstring: CString is abstract

        # The index of the last occurrence of an element starting from pos (in reverse order).
        #
        # ~~~
        # var s = "/etc/bin/test/test.nit"
        # assert s.last_index_of_from('/', s.length-1) == 13
        # assert s.last_index_of_from('/', 12)         == 8
        # ~~~
        #
        # Returns -1 if not found
        fun last_index_of_from(item: Char, pos: Int): Int do return chars.last_index_of_from(item, pos)

        # Concatenates `o` to `self`
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "hello" + "world"  == "helloworld"
        # assert "" + "hello" + ""  == "hello"
        # ~~~
        fun +(o: Text): SELFTYPE is abstract

        # Gets an iterator on the chars of self
        fun iterator: Iterator[Char]
        do
                return self.chars.iterator
        end


        # Gets an Array containing the chars of self
        fun to_a: Array[Char] do return chars.to_a

        # Create a substring from `self` beginning at the `from` position
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abcd".substring_from(1)    ==  "bcd"
        # assert "abcd".substring_from(-1)   ==  "abcd"
        # assert "abcd".substring_from(2)    ==  "cd"
        # ~~~
        #
        # As with substring, a `from` index < 0 will be replaced by 0
        fun substring_from(from: Int): SELFTYPE
        do
                if from >= self.length then return empty
                if from < 0 then from = 0
                return substring(from, length - from)
        end

        # Does self have a substring `str` starting from position `pos`?
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abcd".has_substring("bc",1)        ==  true
        # assert "abcd".has_substring("bc",2)        ==  false
        # ~~~
        #
        # Returns true iff all characters of `str` are presents
        # at the expected index in `self.`
        # The first character of `str` being at `pos`, the second
        # character being at `pos+1` and so on...
        #
        # This means that all characters of `str` need to be inside `self`.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abcd".has_substring("xab", -1)         == false
        # assert "abcd".has_substring("cdx", 2)          == false
        # ~~~
        #
        # And that the empty string is always a valid substring.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abcd".has_substring("", 2)             == true
        # assert "abcd".has_substring("", 200)           == true
        # ~~~
        fun has_substring(str: String, pos: Int): Bool
        do
                if str.is_empty then return true
                if pos < 0 or pos + str.length > length then return false
                var myiter = self.chars.iterator_from(pos)
                var itsiter = str.chars.iterator
                while myiter.is_ok and itsiter.is_ok do
                        if myiter.item != itsiter.item then return false
                        myiter.next
                        itsiter.next
                end
                if itsiter.is_ok then return false
                return true
        end

        # Is this string prefixed by `prefix`?
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abcd".has_prefix("ab")           ==  true
        # assert "abcbc".has_prefix("bc")          ==  false
        # assert "ab".has_prefix("abcd")           ==  false
        # ~~~
        fun has_prefix(prefix: String): Bool do return has_substring(prefix,0)

        # Is this string suffixed by `suffix`?
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abcd".has_suffix("abc")            ==  false
        # assert "abcd".has_suffix("bcd")            ==  true
        # ~~~
        fun has_suffix(suffix: String): Bool do return has_substring(suffix, length - suffix.length)

        # Returns `self` as the corresponding integer
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "123".to_i        == 123
        # assert "-1".to_i         == -1
        # assert "0x64".to_i       == 100
        # assert "0b1100_0011".to_i== 195
        # assert "--12".to_i       == 12
        # assert "+45".to_i        == 45
        # ~~~
        #
        # REQUIRE: `self`.`is_int`
        fun to_i: Int is abstract

        # If `self` contains a float, return the corresponding float
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "123".to_f        == 123.0
        # assert "-1".to_f         == -1.0
        # assert "-1.2e-3".to_f    == -0.0012
        # ~~~
        fun to_f: Float
        do
                # Shortcut
                return to_s.to_cstring.atof
        end

        # If `self` contains only digits and alpha <= 'f', return the corresponding integer.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "ff".to_hex == 255
        # ~~~
        fun to_hex(pos, ln: nullable Int): Int do
                var res = 0
                if pos == null then pos = 0
                if ln == null then ln = length - pos
                var max = pos + ln
                for i in [pos .. max[ do
                        res <<= 4
                        res += self[i].from_hex
                end
                return res
        end

        # If `self` contains only digits <= '7', return the corresponding integer.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "714".to_oct == 460
        # ~~~
        fun to_oct: Int do return a_to(8)

        # If `self` contains only '0' et '1', return the corresponding integer.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "101101".to_bin == 45
        # ~~~
        fun to_bin: Int do return a_to(2)

        # If `self` contains only digits '0' .. '9', return the corresponding integer.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "108".to_dec == 108
        # ~~~
        fun to_dec: Int do return a_to(10)

        # If `self` contains only digits and letters, return the corresponding integer in a given base
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "120".a_to(3)     == 15
        # ~~~
        fun a_to(base: Int) : Int
        do
                var i = 0
                var neg = false

                for j in [0..length[ do
                        var c = chars[j]
                        var v = c.to_i
                        if v > base then
                                if neg then
                                        return -i
                                else
                                        return i
                                end
                        else if v < 0 then
                                neg = true
                        else
                                i = i * base + v
                        end
                end
                if neg then
                        return -i
                else
                        return i
                end
        end

        # Is this string in a valid numeric format compatible with `to_f`?
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "123".is_numeric  == true
        # assert "1.2".is_numeric  == true
        # assert "-1.2".is_numeric == true
        # assert "-1.23e-2".is_numeric == true
        # assert "1..2".is_numeric == false
        # assert "".is_numeric     == false
        # ~~~
        fun is_numeric: Bool
        do
                var has_point = false
                var e_index = -1
                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var c = chars[i]
                        if not c.is_numeric then
                                if c == '.' and not has_point then
                                        has_point = true
                                else if c == 'e' and e_index == -1 and i > 0 and i < length - 1 and chars[i-1] != '-' then
                                        e_index = i
                                else if c == '-' and i == e_index + 1 and i < length - 1 then
                                else
                                        return false
                                end
                        end
                end
                return not is_empty
        end

        # Returns `true` if the string contains only Hex chars
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "048bf".is_hex  == true
        # assert "ABCDEF".is_hex  == true
        # assert "0G".is_hex == false
        # ~~~
        fun is_hex: Bool
        do
                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var c = chars[i]
                        if not (c >= 'a' and c <= 'f') and
                           not (c >= 'A' and c <= 'F') and
                           not (c >= '0' and c <= '9') then return false
                end
                return true
        end

        # Returns `true` if the string contains only Binary digits
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "1101100".is_bin  == true
        # assert "1101020".is_bin  == false
        # ~~~
        fun is_bin: Bool do
                for i in chars do if i != '0' and i != '1' then return false
                return true
        end

        # Returns `true` if the string contains only Octal digits
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "213453".is_oct  == true
        # assert "781".is_oct     == false
        # ~~~
        fun is_oct: Bool do
                for i in chars do if i < '0' or i > '7' then return false
                return true
        end

        # Returns `true` if the string contains only Decimal digits
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "10839".is_dec == true
        # assert "164F".is_dec  == false
        # ~~~
        fun is_dec: Bool do
                for i in chars do if i < '0' or i > '9' then return false
                return true
        end

        # Are all letters in `self` upper-case ?
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "HELLO WORLD".is_upper == true
        # assert "%$&%!".is_upper       == true
        # assert "hello world".is_upper == false
        # assert "Hello World".is_upper == false
        # ~~~
        fun is_upper: Bool
        do
                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var char = chars[i]
                        if char.is_lower then return false
                end
                return true
        end

        # Are all letters in `self` lower-case ?
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "hello world".is_lower == true
        # assert "%$&%!".is_lower       == true
        # assert "Hello World".is_lower == false
        # ~~~
        fun is_lower: Bool
        do
                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var char = chars[i]
                        if char.is_upper then return false
                end
                return true
        end

        # Removes the whitespaces at the beginning of self
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert " \n\thello \n\t".l_trim == "hello \n\t"
        # ~~~
        #
        # `Char::is_whitespace` determines what is a whitespace.
        fun l_trim: SELFTYPE
        do
                var iter = self.chars.iterator
                while iter.is_ok do
                        if not iter.item.is_whitespace then break
                        iter.next
                end
                if iter.index == length then return self.empty
                return self.substring_from(iter.index)
        end

        # Removes the whitespaces at the end of self
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert " \n\thello \n\t".r_trim == " \n\thello"
        # ~~~
        #
        # `Char::is_whitespace` determines what is a whitespace.
        fun r_trim: SELFTYPE
        do
                var iter = self.chars.reverse_iterator
                while iter.is_ok do
                        if not iter.item.is_whitespace then break
                        iter.next
                end
                if iter.index < 0 then return self.empty
                return self.substring(0, iter.index + 1)
        end

        # Trims trailing and preceding white spaces
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "  Hello  World !  ".trim   == "Hello  World !"
        # assert "\na\nb\tc\t".trim          == "a\nb\tc"
        # ~~~
        #
        # `Char::is_whitespace` determines what is a whitespace.
        fun trim: SELFTYPE do return (self.l_trim).r_trim

        # Is the string non-empty but only made of whitespaces?
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert " \n\t ".is_whitespace    == true
        # assert "  hello  ".is_whitespace == false
        # assert "".is_whitespace          == false
        # ~~~
        #
        # `Char::is_whitespace` determines what is a whitespace.
        fun is_whitespace: Bool
        do
                if is_empty then return false
                for c in self.chars do
                        if not c.is_whitespace then return false
                end
                return true
        end

        # Returns `self` removed from its last line terminator (if any).
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "Hello\n".chomp == "Hello"
        # assert "Hello".chomp   == "Hello"
        #
        # assert "\n".chomp == ""
        # assert "".chomp   == ""
        # ~~~
        #
        # Line terminators are `"\n"`, `"\r\n"` and `"\r"`.
        # A single line terminator, the last one, is removed.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "\r\n".chomp     == ""
        # assert "\r\n\n".chomp   == "\r\n"
        # assert "\r\n\r\n".chomp == "\r\n"
        # assert "\r\n\r".chomp   == "\r\n"
        # ~~~
        #
        # Note: unlike with most IO methods like `Reader::read_line`,
        # a single `\r` is considered here to be a line terminator and will be removed.
        fun chomp: SELFTYPE
        do
                var len = length
                if len == 0 then return self
                var l = self.chars.last
                if l == '\r' then
                        return substring(0, len-1)
                else if l != '\n' then
                        return self
                else if len > 1 and self.chars[len-2] == '\r' then
                        return substring(0, len-2)
                else
                        return substring(0, len-1)
                end
        end

        # Justify `self` in a space of `length`
        #
        # `left` is the space ratio on the left side.
        # * 0.0 for left-justified (no space at the left)
        # * 1.0 for right-justified (all spaces at the left)
        # * 0.5 for centered (half the spaces at the left)
        #
        # `char`, or `' '` by default, is repeated to pad the empty space.
        #
        # Examples
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "hello".justify(10, 0.0)  == "hello     "
        # assert "hello".justify(10, 1.0)  == "     hello"
        # assert "hello".justify(10, 0.5)  == "  hello   "
        # assert "hello".justify(10, 0.5, '.') == "..hello..."
        # ~~~
        #
        # If `length` is not enough, `self` is returned as is.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "hello".justify(2, 0.0)   == "hello"
        # ~~~
        #
        # REQUIRE: `left >= 0.0 and left <= 1.0`
        # ENSURE: `self.length <= length implies result.length == length`
        # ENSURE: `self.length >= length implies result == self`
        fun justify(length: Int, left: Float, char: nullable Char): String
        do
                var pad = (char or else ' ').to_s
                var diff = length - self.length
                if diff <= 0 then return to_s
                assert left >= 0.0 and left <= 1.0
                var before = (diff.to_f * left).to_i
                return pad * before + self + pad * (diff-before)
        end

        # Mangle a string to be a unique string only made of alphanumeric characters and underscores.
        #
        # This method is injective (two different inputs never produce the same
        # output) and the returned string always respect the following rules:
        #
        # * Contains only US-ASCII letters, digits and underscores.
        # * Never starts with a digit.
        # * Never ends with an underscore.
        # * Never contains two contiguous underscores.
        #
        # Examples:
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "42_is/The answer!".to_cmangle == "_52d2_is_47dThe_32danswer_33d"
        # assert "__".to_cmangle == "_95d_95d"
        # assert "__d".to_cmangle == "_95d_d"
        # assert "_d_".to_cmangle == "_d_95d"
        # assert "_42".to_cmangle == "_95d42"
        # assert "foo".to_cmangle == "foo"
        # assert "".to_cmangle == ""
        # ~~~
        fun to_cmangle: String
        do
                if is_empty then return ""
                var res = new Buffer
                var underscore = false
                var start = 0
                var c = self[0]

                if c >= '0' and c <= '9' then
                        res.add('_')
                        res.append(c.code_point.to_s)
                        res.add('d')
                        start = 1
                end
                for i in [start..length[ do
                        c = self[i]
                        if (c >= 'a' and c <= 'z') or (c >='A' and c <= 'Z') then
                                res.add(c)
                                underscore = false
                                continue
                        end
                        if underscore then
                                res.append('_'.code_point.to_s)
                                res.add('d')
                        end
                        if c >= '0' and c <= '9' then
                                res.add(c)
                                underscore = false
                        else if c == '_' then
                                res.add(c)
                                underscore = true
                        else
                                res.add('_')
                                res.append(c.code_point.to_s)
                                res.add('d')
                                underscore = false
                        end
                end
                if underscore then
                        res.append('_'.code_point.to_s)
                        res.add('d')
                end
                return res.to_s
        end

        # Escape `"` `\` `'`, trigraphs and non printable characters using the rules of literal C strings and characters
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abAB12<>&".escape_to_c       == "abAB12<>&"
        # assert "\n\"'\\".escape_to_c         == "\\n\\\"\\'\\\\"
        # assert "allo???!".escape_to_c        == "allo??\\?!"
        # assert "??=??/??'??(??)".escape_to_c == "?\\?=?\\?/??\\'?\\?(?\\?)"
        # assert "??!??<??>??-".escape_to_c    == "?\\?!?\\?<?\\?>?\\?-"
        # ~~~
        #
        # Most non-printable characters (bellow ASCII 32) are escaped to an octal form `\nnn`.
        # Three digits are always used to avoid following digits to be interpreted as an element
        # of the octal sequence.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "{0.code_point}{1.code_point}{8.code_point}{31.code_point}{32.code_point}".escape_to_c == "\\000\\001\\010\\037 "
        # ~~~
        #
        # The exceptions are the common `\t` and `\n`.
        fun escape_to_c: String
        do
                var b = new Buffer
                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var c = chars[i]
                        if c == '\n' then
                                b.append("\\n")
                        else if c == '\t' then
                                b.append("\\t")
                        else if c == '"' then
                                b.append("\\\"")
                        else if c == '\'' then
                                b.append("\\\'")
                        else if c == '\\' then
                                b.append("\\\\")
                        else if c == '?' then
                                # Escape if it is the last question mark of a ANSI C trigraph.
                                var j = i + 1
                                if j < length then
                                        var next = chars[j]
                                        # We ignore `??'` because it will be escaped as `??\'`.
                                        if
                                                next == '!' or
                                                next == '(' or
                                                next == ')' or
                                                next == '-' or
                                                next == '/' or
                                                next == '<' or
                                                next == '=' or
                                                next == '>'
                                        then b.add('\\')
                                end
                                b.add('?')
                        else if c.code_point < 32 then
                                b.add('\\')
                                var oct = c.code_point.to_base(8)
                                # Force 3 octal digits since it is the
                                # maximum allowed in the C specification
                                if oct.length == 1 then
                                        b.add('0')
                                        b.add('0')
                                else if oct.length == 2 then
                                        b.add('0')
                                end
                                b.append(oct)
                        else
                                b.add(c)
                        end
                end
                return b.to_s
        end

        # Escape additionnal characters
        # The result might no be legal in C but be used in other languages
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "ab|\{\}".escape_more_to_c("|\{\}") == "ab\\|\\\{\\\}"
        # assert "allo???!".escape_more_to_c("")     == "allo??\\?!"
        # ~~~
        fun escape_more_to_c(chars: String): String
        do
                var b = new Buffer
                for c in escape_to_c.chars do
                        if chars.chars.has(c) then
                                b.add('\\')
                        end
                        b.add(c)
                end
                return b.to_s
        end

        # Escape to C plus braces
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "\n\"'\\\{\}".escape_to_nit      == "\\n\\\"\\'\\\\\\\{\\\}"
        # ~~~
        fun escape_to_nit: String do return escape_more_to_c("\{\}")

        # Escape to POSIX Shell (sh).
        #
        # Abort if the text contains a null byte.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "\n\"'\\\{\}0".escape_to_sh == "'\n\"'\\''\\\{\}0'"
        # ~~~
        fun escape_to_sh: String do
                var b = new Buffer
                b.chars.add '\''
                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var c = chars[i]
                        if c == '\'' then
                                b.append("'\\''")
                        else
                                assert without_null_byte: c != '\0'
                                b.add(c)
                        end
                end
                b.chars.add '\''
                return b.to_s
        end

        # Escape to include in a Makefile
        #
        # Unfortunately, some characters are not escapable in Makefile.
        # These characters are `;`, `|`, `\`, and the non-printable ones.
        # They will be rendered as `"?{hex}"`.
        fun escape_to_mk: String do
                var b = new Buffer
                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var c = chars[i]
                        if c == '$' then
                                b.append("$$")
                        else if c == ':' or c == ' ' or c == '#' then
                                b.add('\\')
                                b.add(c)
                        else if c.code_point < 32 or c == ';' or c == '|' or c == '\\' then
                                b.append("?{c.code_point.to_base(16)}")
                        else
                                b.add(c)
                        end
                end
                return b.to_s
        end

        # Return a string where Nit escape sequences are transformed.
        #
        # ~~~
        # var s = "\\n"
        # assert s.length        ==  2
        # var u = s.unescape_nit
        # assert u.length        ==  1
        # assert u.chars[0].code_point      ==  10 # (the ASCII value of the "new line" character)
        # ~~~
        fun unescape_nit: String
        do
                var res = new Buffer.with_cap(self.length)
                var was_slash = false
                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var c = chars[i]
                        if not was_slash then
                                if c == '\\' then
                                        was_slash = true
                                else
                                        res.add(c)
                                end
                                continue
                        end
                        was_slash = false
                        if c == 'n' then
                                res.add('\n')
                        else if c == 'r' then
                                res.add('\r')
                        else if c == 't' then
                                res.add('\t')
                        else if c == '0' then
                                res.add('\0')
                        else
                                res.add(c)
                        end
                end
                return res.to_s
        end

        # Returns `self` with all characters escaped with their UTF-16 representation
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "Aèあ𐏓".escape_to_utf16 == "\\u0041\\u00e8\\u3042\\ud800\\udfd3"
        # ~~~
        fun escape_to_utf16: String do
                var buf = new Buffer
                for i in chars do buf.append i.escape_to_utf16
                return buf.to_s
        end

        # Returns the Unicode char escaped by `self`
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "\\u0041".from_utf16_escape == 'A'
        # assert "\\ud800\\udfd3".from_utf16_escape == '𐏓'
        # assert "\\u00e8".from_utf16_escape == 'è'
        # assert "\\u3042".from_utf16_escape == 'あ'
        # ~~~
        fun from_utf16_escape(pos, ln: nullable Int): Char do
                if pos == null then pos = 0
                if ln == null then ln = length - pos
                if ln < 6 then return 0xFFFD.code_point
                var cp = from_utf16_digit(pos + 2).to_u32
                if cp < 0xD800u32 then return cp.code_point
                if cp > 0xDFFFu32 then return cp.code_point
                if cp > 0xDBFFu32 then return 0xFFFD.code_point
                if ln == 6 then return 0xFFFD.code_point
                if ln < 12 then return 0xFFFD.code_point
                cp <<= 16
                cp += from_utf16_digit(pos + 8).to_u32
                var cplo = cp & 0xFFFFu32
                if cplo < 0xDC00u32 then return 0xFFFD.code_point
                if cplo > 0xDFFFu32 then return 0xFFFD.code_point
                return cp.from_utf16_surr.code_point
        end

        # Returns a UTF-16 escape value
        #
        # ~~~
        # var s = "\\ud800\\udfd3"
        # assert s.from_utf16_digit(2) == 0xD800
        # assert s.from_utf16_digit(8) == 0xDFD3
        # ~~~
        fun from_utf16_digit(pos: nullable Int): Int do
                if pos == null then pos = 0
                return to_hex(pos, 4)
        end

        # Encode `self` to percent (or URL) encoding
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "aBc09-._~".to_percent_encoding == "aBc09-._~"
        # assert "%()< >".to_percent_encoding == "%25%28%29%3c%20%3e"
        # assert ".com/post?e=asdf&f=123".to_percent_encoding == ".com%2fpost%3fe%3dasdf%26f%3d123"
        # assert "éあいう".to_percent_encoding == "%c3%a9%e3%81%82%e3%81%84%e3%81%86"
        # ~~~
        fun to_percent_encoding: String
        do
                var buf = new Buffer

                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var c = chars[i]
                        if (c >= '0' and c <= '9') or
                           (c >= 'a' and c <= 'z') or
                           (c >= 'A' and c <= 'Z') or
                           c == '-' or c == '.' or
                           c == '_' or c == '~'
                        then
                                buf.add c
                        else
                                var bytes = c.to_s.bytes
                                for b in bytes do buf.append "%{b.to_i.to_hex}"
                        end
                end

                return buf.to_s
        end

        # Decode `self` from percent (or URL) encoding to a clear string
        #
        # Invalid '%' are not decoded.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "aBc09-._~".from_percent_encoding == "aBc09-._~"
        # assert "%25%28%29%3c%20%3e".from_percent_encoding == "%()< >"
        # assert ".com%2fpost%3fe%3dasdf%26f%3d123".from_percent_encoding == ".com/post?e=asdf&f=123"
        # assert "%25%28%29%3C%20%3E".from_percent_encoding == "%()< >"
        # assert "incomplete %".from_percent_encoding == "incomplete %"
        # assert "invalid % usage".from_percent_encoding == "invalid % usage"
        # assert "%c3%a9%e3%81%82%e3%81%84%e3%81%86".from_percent_encoding == "éあいう"
        # assert "%1 %A %C3%A9A9".from_percent_encoding == "%1 %A éA9"
        # ~~~
        fun from_percent_encoding: String
        do
                var len = byte_length
                var has_percent = false
                for c in chars do
                        if c == '%' then
                                len -= 2
                                has_percent = true
                        end
                end

                # If no transformation is needed, return self as a string
                if not has_percent then return to_s

                var buf = new CString(len)
                var i = 0
                var l = 0
                while i < length do
                        var c = chars[i]
                        if c == '%' then
                                if i + 2 >= length then
                                        # What follows % has been cut off
                                        buf[l] = u'%'
                                else
                                        i += 1
                                        var hex_s = substring(i, 2)
                                        if hex_s.is_hex then
                                                var hex_i = hex_s.to_hex
                                                buf[l] = hex_i
                                                i += 1
                                        else
                                                # What follows a % is not Hex
                                                buf[l] = u'%'
                                                i -= 1
                                        end
                                end
                        else buf[l] = c.code_point

                        i += 1
                        l += 1
                end

                return buf.to_s_unsafe(l, copy=false)
        end

        # Escape the characters `<`, `>`, `&`, `"`, `'` and `/` as HTML/XML entity references.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "a&b-<>\"x\"/'".html_escape      ==  "a&amp;b-&lt;&gt;&#34;x&#34;&#47;&#39;"
        # ~~~
        #
        # SEE: <https://www.owasp.org/index.php/XSS_%28Cross_Site_Scripting%29_Prevention_Cheat_Sheet#RULE_.231_-_HTML_Escape_Before_Inserting_Untrusted_Data_into_HTML_Element_Content>
        fun html_escape: String
        do
                var buf: nullable Buffer = null

                for i in [0..length[ do
                        var c = chars[i]
                        var sub = null
                        if c == '&' then
                                sub = "&amp;"
                        else if c == '<' then
                                sub = "&lt;"
                        else if c == '>' then
                                sub = "&gt;"
                        else if c == '"' then
                                sub = "&#34;"
                        else if c == '\'' then
                                sub = "&#39;"
                        else if c == '/' then
                                sub = "&#47;"
                        else
                                if buf != null then buf.add c
                                continue
                        end
                        if buf == null then
                                buf = new Buffer
                                for j in [0..i[ do buf.add chars[j]
                        end
                        buf.append sub
                end

                if buf == null then return self.to_s
                return buf.to_s
        end

        # Equality of text
        # Two pieces of text are equals if thez have the same characters in the same order.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "hello" == "hello"
        # assert "hello" != "HELLO"
        # assert "hello" == "hel"+"lo"
        # ~~~
        #
        # Things that are not Text are not equal.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "9" != '9'
        # assert "9" != ['9']
        # assert "9" != 9
        #
        # assert "9".chars.first == '9'   # equality of Char
        # assert "9".chars       == ['9'] # equality of Sequence
        # assert "9".to_i        == 9     # equality of Int
        # ~~~
        redef fun ==(o)
        do
                if o == null then return false
                if not o isa Text then return false
                if self.is_same_instance(o) then return true
                if self.length != o.length then return false
                return self.chars == o.chars
        end

        # Lexicographical comparaison
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abc" < "xy"
        # assert "ABC" < "abc"
        # ~~~
        redef fun <(other)
        do
                var self_chars = self.chars.iterator
                var other_chars = other.chars.iterator

                while self_chars.is_ok and other_chars.is_ok do
                        if self_chars.item < other_chars.item then return true
                        if self_chars.item > other_chars.item then return false
                        self_chars.next
                        other_chars.next
                end

                if self_chars.is_ok then
                        return false
                else
                        return true
                end
        end

        # Escape string used in labels for graphviz
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert ">><<".escape_to_dot == "\\>\\>\\<\\<"
        # ~~~
        fun escape_to_dot: String
        do
                return escape_more_to_c("|\{\}<>")
        end

        private var hash_cache: nullable Int = null

        redef fun hash
        do
                if hash_cache == null then
                        # djb2 hash algorithm
                        var h = 5381

                        for i in [0..length[ do
                                var char = chars[i]
                                h = (h << 5) + h + char.code_point
                        end

                        hash_cache = h
                end
                return hash_cache.as(not null)
        end

        # Format `self` by replacing each `%n` with the `n`th item of `args`
        #
        # The character `%` followed by something other than a number are left as is.
        # To represent a `%` followed by a number, double the `%`, as in `%%7`.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "This %0 is a %1.".format("String", "formatted String") == "This String is a formatted String."
        # assert "Do not escape % nor %%1".format("unused") == "Do not escape % nor %1"
        # ~~~
        fun format(args: Object...): String do
                var s = new Array[Text]
                var curr_st = 0
                var i = 0
                while i < length do
                        if self[i] == '%' then
                                var fmt_st = i
                                i += 1
                                var ciph_st = i
                                while i < length and self[i].is_numeric do
                                        i += 1
                                end

                                var ciph_len = i - ciph_st
                                if ciph_len == 0 then
                                        # What follows '%' is not a number.
                                        s.push substring(curr_st, i - curr_st)
                                        if i < length and self[i] == '%' then
                                                # Skip the next `%`
                                                i += 1
                                        end
                                        curr_st = i
                                        continue
                                end

                                var arg_index = substring(ciph_st, ciph_len).to_i
                                if arg_index >= args.length then continue

                                s.push substring(curr_st, fmt_st - curr_st)
                                s.push args[arg_index].to_s

                                curr_st = i
                                i -= 1
                        end
                        i += 1
                end
                s.push substring(curr_st, length - curr_st)
                return s.plain_to_s
        end

        # Return the Levenshtein distance between two strings
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abcd".levenshtein_distance("abcd") == 0
        # assert "".levenshtein_distance("abcd")     == 4
        # assert "abcd".levenshtein_distance("")     == 4
        # assert "abcd".levenshtein_distance("xyz")  == 4
        # assert "abcd".levenshtein_distance("xbdy") == 3
        # ~~~
        fun levenshtein_distance(other: String): Int
        do
                var slen = self.length
                var olen = other.length

                # fast cases
                if slen == 0 then return olen
                if olen == 0 then return slen
                if self == other then return 0

                # previous row of distances
                var v0 = new Array[Int].with_capacity(olen+1)

                # current row of distances
                var v1 = new Array[Int].with_capacity(olen+1)

                for j in [0..olen] do
                        # prefix insert cost
                        v0[j] = j
                end

                for i in [0..slen[ do

                        # prefix delete cost
                        v1[0] = i + 1

                        for j in [0..olen[ do
                                # delete cost
                                var cost1 = v1[j] + 1
                                # insert cost
                                var cost2 = v0[j + 1] + 1
                                # same char cost (+0)
                                var cost3 = v0[j]
                                # change cost
                                if self[i] != other[j] then cost3 += 1
                                # keep the min
                                v1[j+1] = cost1.min(cost2).min(cost3)
                        end

                        # Switch columns:
                        # * v1 become v0 in the next iteration
                        # * old v0 is reused as the new v1
                        var tmp = v1
                        v1 = v0
                        v0 = tmp
                end

                return v0[olen]
        end

        # Copies `n` bytes from `self` at `src_offset` into `dest` starting at `dest_offset`
        #
        # Basically a high-level synonym of CString::copy_to
        #
        # REQUIRE: `n` must be large enough to contain `len` bytes
        #
        # ~~~
        # var ns = new CString(8)
        # "Text is String".copy_to_native(ns, 8, 2, 0)
        # assert ns.to_s_with_length(8) == "xt is St"
        # ~~~
        fun copy_to_native(dest: CString, n, src_offset, dest_offset: Int) do
                var mypos = src_offset
                var itspos = dest_offset
                while n > 0 do
                        dest[itspos] = self.bytes[mypos]
                        itspos += 1
                        mypos += 1
                        n -= 1
                end
        end

        # Packs the content of a string in packs of `ln` chars.
        # This variant ensures that only the last element might be smaller than `ln`
        #
        # ~~~
        # var s = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz"
        # assert s.pack_l(4) == ["abcd","efgh","ijkl","mnop","qrst","uvwx","yz"]
        # ~~~
        fun pack_l(ln: Int): Array[Text] do
                var st = 0
                var retarr = new Array[Text].with_capacity(length / ln + length % ln)
                while st < length do
                        retarr.add(substring(st, ln))
                        st += ln
                end
                return retarr
        end

        # Packs the content of a string in packs of `ln` chars.
        # This variant ensures that only the first element might be smaller than `ln`
        #
        # ~~~
        # var s = "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz"
        # assert s.pack_r(4) == ["ab","cdef","ghij","klmn","opqr","stuv","wxyz"]
        # ~~~
        fun pack_r(ln: Int): Array[Text] do
                var st = length
                var retarr = new Array[Text].with_capacity(length / ln + length % ln)
                while st >= 0 do
                        retarr.add(substring(st - ln, ln))
                        st -= ln
                end
                return retarr.reversed
        end

        # Concatenates self `i` times
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "abc" * 4 == "abcabcabcabc"
        # assert "abc" * 1 == "abc"
        # assert "abc" * 0 == ""
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append("天地")
        # b = b * 4
        # assert b == "天地天地天地天地"
        # ~~~
        fun *(i: Int): SELFTYPE is abstract

        # Insert `s` at `pos`.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "helloworld".insert_at(" ", 5) == "hello world"
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append("Hello世界")
        # b = b.insert_at(" beautiful ", 5)
        # assert b == "Hello beautiful 世界"
        # ~~~
        fun insert_at(s: String, pos: Int): SELFTYPE is abstract

        # Returns a reversed version of self
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "hello".reversed  == "olleh"
        # assert "bob".reversed    == "bob"
        # assert "".reversed       == ""
        # ~~~
        fun reversed: SELFTYPE is abstract

        # A upper case version of `self`
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "Hello World!".to_upper     == "HELLO WORLD!"
        # ~~~
        fun to_upper: SELFTYPE is abstract

        # A lower case version of `self`
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "Hello World!".to_lower     == "hello world!"
        # ~~~
        fun to_lower : SELFTYPE is abstract

        # Takes a camel case `self` and converts it to snake case
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "randomMethodId".to_snake_case == "random_method_id"
        # ~~~
        #
        # The rules are the following:
        #
        # An uppercase is always converted to a lowercase
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "HELLO_WORLD".to_snake_case == "hello_world"
        # ~~~
        #
        # An uppercase that follows a lowercase is prefixed with an underscore
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "HelloTheWORLD".to_snake_case == "hello_the_world"
        # ~~~
        #
        # An uppercase that follows an uppercase and is followed by a lowercase, is prefixed with an underscore
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "HelloTHEWorld".to_snake_case == "hello_the_world"
        # ~~~
        #
        # All other characters are kept as is; `self` does not need to be a proper CamelCased string.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "=-_H3ll0Th3W0rld_-=".to_snake_case == "=-_h3ll0th3w0rld_-="
        # ~~~
        fun to_snake_case: SELFTYPE is abstract

        # Takes a snake case `self` and converts it to camel case
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "random_method_id".to_camel_case == "randomMethodId"
        # ~~~
        #
        # If the identifier is prefixed by an underscore, the underscore is ignored
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "_private_field".to_camel_case == "_privateField"
        # ~~~
        #
        # If `self` is upper, it is returned unchanged
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "RANDOM_ID".to_camel_case == "RANDOM_ID"
        # ~~~
        #
        # If there are several consecutive underscores, they are considered as a single one
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "random__method_id".to_camel_case == "randomMethodId"
        # ~~~
        fun to_camel_case: SELFTYPE is abstract

        # Returns a capitalized `self`
        #
        # Letters that follow a letter are lowercased
        # Letters that follow a non-letter are upcased.
        #
        # If `keep_upper = true`, already uppercase letters are not lowercased.
        #
        # SEE : `Char::is_letter` for the definition of letter.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert "jAVASCRIPT".capitalized == "Javascript"
        # assert "i am root".capitalized == "I Am Root"
        # assert "ab_c -ab0c ab\nc".capitalized == "Ab_C -Ab0C Ab\nC"
        # assert "preserve my ACRONYMS".capitalized(keep_upper=true) == "Preserve My ACRONYMS"
        # ~~~
        fun capitalized(keep_upper: nullable Bool): SELFTYPE do
                if length == 0 then return self

                var buf = new Buffer.with_cap(length)
                buf.capitalize(keep_upper=keep_upper, src=self)
                return buf.to_s
        end
end

# All kinds of array-based text representations.
abstract class FlatText
        super Text

        # Underlying CString (`char*`)
        #
        # Warning: Might be void in some subclasses, be sure to check
        # if set before using it.
        var items: CString is noinit

        # Returns a char* starting at position `first_byte`
        #
        # WARNING: If you choose to use this service, be careful of the following.
        #
        # Strings and CString are *ideally* always allocated through a Garbage Collector.
        # Since the GC tracks the use of the pointer for the beginning of the char*, it may be
        # deallocated at any moment, rendering the pointer returned by this function invalid.
        # Any access to freed memory may very likely cause undefined behaviour or a crash.
        # (Failure to do so will most certainly result in long and painful debugging hours)
        #
        # The only safe use of this pointer is if it is ephemeral (e.g. read in a C function
        # then immediately return).
        #
        # As always, do not modify the content of the String in C code, if this is what you want
        # copy locally the char* as Nit Strings are immutable.
        fun fast_cstring: CString is abstract

        redef var length = 0

        redef var byte_length = 0

        redef fun output
        do
                var i = 0
                while i < length do
                        items[i].output
                        i += 1
                end
        end

        redef fun copy_to_native(dest, n, src_offset, dest_offset) do
                items.copy_to(dest, n, src_offset, dest_offset)
        end
end

# Abstract class for the SequenceRead compatible
# views on the chars of any Text
private abstract class StringCharView
        super SequenceRead[Char]

        type SELFTYPE: Text

        var target: SELFTYPE

        redef fun is_empty do return target.is_empty

        redef fun length do return target.length

        redef fun iterator: IndexedIterator[Char] do return self.iterator_from(0)

        redef fun reverse_iterator do return self.reverse_iterator_from(self.length - 1)
end

# Abstract class for the SequenceRead compatible
# views on the bytes of any Text
private abstract class StringByteView
        super SequenceRead[Int]

        type SELFTYPE: Text

        var target: SELFTYPE

        redef fun is_empty do return target.is_empty

        redef fun length do return target.byte_length

        redef fun iterator do return self.iterator_from(0)

        redef fun reverse_iterator do return self.reverse_iterator_from(target.byte_length - 1)
end

# Immutable sequence of characters.
#
# String objects may be created using literals.
#
# ~~~
# assert "Hello World!" isa String
# ~~~
abstract class String
        super Text

        redef type SELFTYPE: String is fixed

        redef fun to_s do return self

        redef fun clone do return self

        redef fun to_buffer do return new Buffer.from_text(self)

        redef fun to_camel_case do
                if self.is_upper then return self

                var new_str = new Buffer.with_cap(length)
                new_str.append self
                new_str.camel_case
                return new_str.to_s
        end

        redef fun to_snake_case do
                if self.is_lower then return self

                var new_str = new Buffer.with_cap(self.length)
                new_str.append self
                new_str.snake_case
                return new_str.to_s
        end
end

# A mutable sequence of characters.
abstract class Buffer
        super Text

        # Returns an arbitrary subclass of `Buffer` with default parameters
        new is abstract

        # Returns an instance of a subclass of `Buffer` with `i` base capacity
        new with_cap(i: Int) is abstract

        # Returns an instance of a subclass of `Buffer` with `t` as content
        new from_text(t: Text) do
                var ret = new Buffer.with_cap(t.byte_length)
                ret.append t
                return ret
        end

        redef type SELFTYPE: Buffer is fixed

        # Copy-On-Write flag
        #
        # If the `Buffer` was to_s'd, the next in-place altering
        # operation will cause the current `Buffer` to be re-allocated.
        #
        # The flag will then be set at `false`.
        protected var written = false

        # Modifies the char contained at pos `index`
        fun []=(index: Int, item: Char) is abstract

        redef fun to_buffer do return clone

        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append("Buffer!")
        # var c = b.clone
        # assert b == c
        # ~~~
        redef fun clone do
                var cln = new Buffer.with_cap(byte_length)
                cln.append self
                return cln
        end

        # Adds a char `c` at the end of self
        fun add(c: Char) is abstract

        # Clears the buffer
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append "hello"
        # assert not b.is_empty
        # b.clear
        # assert b.is_empty
        # ~~~
        fun clear is abstract

        # Enlarges the subsequent array containing the chars of self
        fun enlarge(cap: Int) is abstract

        # Adds the content of text `s` at the end of self
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append "hello"
        # b.append "world"
        # assert b == "helloworld"
        # ~~~
        fun append(s: Text) is abstract

        # `self` is appended in such a way that `self` is repeated `r` times
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append "hello"
        # b.times 3
        # assert b == "hellohellohello"
        # ~~~
        fun times(r: Int) is abstract

        # Reverses itself in-place
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append("hello")
        # b.reverse
        # assert b == "olleh"
        # ~~~
        fun reverse is abstract

        # Changes each lower-case char in `self` by its upper-case variant
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append("Hello World!")
        # b.upper
        # assert b == "HELLO WORLD!"
        # ~~~
        fun upper is abstract

        # Changes each upper-case char in `self` by its lower-case variant
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append("Hello World!")
        # b.lower
        # assert b == "hello world!"
        # ~~~
        fun lower is abstract

        # Capitalizes each word in `self`
        #
        # Letters that follow a letter are lowercased
        # Letters that follow a non-letter are upcased.
        #
        # If `keep_upper = true`, uppercase letters are not lowercased.
        #
        # When `src` is specified, this method reads from `src` instead of `self`
        # but it still writes the result to the beginning of `self`.
        # This requires `self` to have the capacity to receive all of the
        # capitalized content of `src`.
        #
        # SEE: `Char::is_letter` for the definition of a letter.
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new FlatBuffer.from("jAVAsCriPt")
        # b.capitalize
        # assert b == "Javascript"
        # b = new FlatBuffer.from("i am root")
        # b.capitalize
        # assert b == "I Am Root"
        # b = new FlatBuffer.from("ab_c -ab0c ab\nc")
        # b.capitalize
        # assert b == "Ab_C -Ab0C Ab\nC"
        #
        # b = new FlatBuffer.from("12345")
        # b.capitalize(src="foo")
        # assert b == "Foo45"
        #
        # b = new FlatBuffer.from("preserve my ACRONYMS")
        # b.capitalize(keep_upper=true)
        # assert b == "Preserve My ACRONYMS"
        # ~~~
        fun capitalize(keep_upper: nullable Bool, src: nullable Text) do
                src = src or else self
                var length = src.length
                if length == 0 then return
                keep_upper = keep_upper or else false

                var c = src[0].to_upper
                self[0] = c
                var prev = c
                for i in [1 .. length[ do
                        prev = c
                        c = src[i]
                        if prev.is_letter then
                                if keep_upper then
                                        self[i] = c
                                else
                                        self[i] = c.to_lower
                                end
                        else
                                self[i] = c.to_upper
                        end
                end
        end

        # In Buffers, the internal sequence of character is mutable
        # Thus, `chars` can be used to modify the buffer.
        redef fun chars: Sequence[Char] is abstract

        # Appends `length` chars from `s` starting at index `from`
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append_substring("abcde", 1, 2)
        # assert b == "bc"
        # b.append_substring("vwxyz", 2, 3)
        # assert b == "bcxyz"
        # b.append_substring("ABCDE", 4, 300)
        # assert b == "bcxyzE"
        # b.append_substring("VWXYZ", 400, 1)
        # assert b == "bcxyzE"
        # ~~~
        fun append_substring(s: Text, from, length: Int) do
                if from < 0 then
                        length += from
                        from = 0
                end
                var ln = s.length
                if (length + from) > ln then length = ln - from
                if length <= 0 then return
                append_substring_impl(s, from, length)
        end

        # Unsafe version of `append_substring` for performance
        #
        # NOTE: Use only if sure about `from` and `length`, no checks
        # or bound recalculation is done
        fun append_substring_impl(s: Text, from, length: Int) do
                var max = from + length
                for i in [from .. max[ do add s[i]
        end

        redef fun *(i) do
                var ret = new Buffer.with_cap(byte_length * i)
                for its in [0 .. i[ do ret.append self
                return ret
        end

        redef fun insert_at(s, pos) do
                var obuf = new Buffer.with_cap(byte_length + s.byte_length)
                obuf.append_substring(self, 0, pos)
                obuf.append s
                obuf.append_substring(self, pos, length - pos)
                return obuf
        end

        # Inserts `s` at position `pos`
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append "美しい世界"
        # b.insert(" nit ", 3)
        # assert b == "美しい nit 世界"
        # ~~~
        fun insert(s: Text, pos: Int) is abstract

        # Inserts `c` at position `pos`
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append "美しい世界"
        # b.insert_char(' ', 3)
        # assert b == "美しい 世界"
        # ~~~
        fun insert_char(c: Char, pos: Int) is abstract

        # Removes a substring from `self` at position `pos`
        #
        # NOTE: `length` defaults to 1, expressed in chars
        #
        # ~~~
        # var b = new Buffer
        # b.append("美しい 世界")
        # b.remove_at(3)
        # assert b == "美しい世界"
        # b.remove_at(1, 2)
        # assert b == "美世界"
        # ~~~
        fun remove_at(pos: Int, length: nullable Int) is abstract

        redef fun reversed do
                var ret = clone
                ret.reverse
                return ret
        end

        redef fun to_upper do
                var ret = clone
                ret.upper
                return ret
        end

        redef fun to_lower do
                var ret = clone
                ret.lower
                return ret
        end

        redef fun to_snake_case do
                var ret = clone
                ret.snake_case
                return ret
        end

        # Takes a camel case `self` and converts it to snake case
        #
        # SEE: `to_snake_case`
        fun snake_case do
                if self.is_lower then return
                var prev_is_lower = false
                var prev_is_upper = false

                var i = 0
                while i < length do
                        var char = chars[i]
                        if char.is_lower then
                                prev_is_lower = true
                                prev_is_upper = false
                        else if char.is_upper then
                                if prev_is_lower then
                                        insert_char('_', i)
                                        i += 1
                                else if prev_is_upper and i + 1 < length and self[i + 1].is_lower then
                                        insert_char('_', i)
                                        i += 1
                                end
                                self[i] = char.to_lower
                                prev_is_lower = false
                                prev_is_upper = true
                        else
                                prev_is_lower = false
                                prev_is_upper = false
                        end
                        i += 1
                end
        end

        redef fun to_camel_case
        do
                var new_str = clone
                new_str.camel_case
                return new_str
        end

        # Takes a snake case `self` and converts it to camel case
        #
        # SEE: `to_camel_case`
        fun camel_case do
                if is_upper then return

                var underscore_count = 0

                var pos = 1
                while pos < length do
                        var char = self[pos]
                        if char == '_' then
                                underscore_count += 1
                        else if underscore_count > 0 then
                                pos -= underscore_count
                                remove_at(pos, underscore_count)
                                self[pos] = char.to_upper
                                underscore_count = 0
                        end
                        pos += 1
                end
                if underscore_count > 0 then remove_at(pos - underscore_count - 1, underscore_count)
        end

        redef fun capitalized(keep_upper) do
                if length == 0 then return self

                var buf = new Buffer.with_cap(byte_length)
                buf.capitalize(keep_upper=keep_upper, src=self)
                return buf
        end
end

# View for chars on Buffer objects, extends Sequence
# for mutation operations
private abstract class BufferCharView
        super StringCharView
        super Sequence[Char]

        redef type SELFTYPE: Buffer

end

# View for bytes on Buffer objects, extends Sequence
# for mutation operations
private abstract class BufferByteView
        super StringByteView

        redef type SELFTYPE: Buffer
end

redef class Object
        # User readable representation of `self`.
        fun to_s: String do return inspect

        # The class name of the object in CString format.
        private fun native_class_name: CString is intern

        # The class name of the object.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 5.class_name == "Int"
        # ~~~
        fun class_name: String do return native_class_name.to_s

        # Developer readable representation of `self`.
        # Usually, it uses the form "<CLASSNAME:#OBJECTID bla bla bla>"
        fun inspect: String
        do
                return "<{inspect_head}>"
        end

        # Return "CLASSNAME:#OBJECTID".
        # This function is mainly used with the redefinition of the inspect method
        protected fun inspect_head: String
        do
                return "{class_name}:#{object_id.to_hex}"
        end
end

redef class Bool
        # ~~~
        # assert true.to_s         == "true"
        # assert false.to_s        == "false"
        # ~~~
        redef fun to_s
        do
                if self then
                        return once "true"
                else
                        return once "false"
                end
        end
end

redef class Byte
        # C function to calculate the length of the `CString` to receive `self`
        private fun byte_to_s_len: Int `{
                return snprintf(NULL, 0, "0x%02x", self);
        `}

        # C function to convert an nit Int to a CString (char*)
        private fun native_byte_to_s(nstr: CString, strlen: Int) `{
                snprintf(nstr, strlen, "0x%02x", self);
        `}

        # Displayable byte in its hexadecimal form (0x..)
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 1.to_b.to_s       == "0x01"
        # assert (-123).to_b.to_s  == "0x85"
        # ~~~
        redef fun to_s do
                var nslen = byte_to_s_len
                var ns = new CString(nslen + 1)
                ns[nslen] = 0
                native_byte_to_s(ns, nslen + 1)
                return ns.to_s_unsafe(nslen, copy=false, clean=false)
        end
end

redef class Int

        # Wrapper of strerror C function
        private fun strerror_ext: CString `{ return strerror((int)self); `}

        # Returns a string describing error number
        fun strerror: String do return strerror_ext.to_s

        # Fill `s` with the digits in base `base` of `self` (and with the '-' sign if negative).
        # assume < to_c max const of char
        private fun fill_buffer(s: Buffer, base: Int)
        do
                var n: Int
                # Sign
                if self < 0 then
                        n = - self
                        s.chars[0] = '-'
                else if self == 0 then
                        s.chars[0] = '0'
                        return
                else
                        n = self
                end
                # Fill digits
                var pos = digit_count(base) - 1
                while pos >= 0 and n > 0 do
                        s.chars[pos] = (n % base).to_c
                        n = n / base # /
                        pos -= 1
                end
        end

        # C function to calculate the length of the `CString` to receive `self`
        private fun int_to_s_len: Int `{
                return snprintf(NULL, 0, "%ld", self);
        `}

        # C function to convert an nit Int to a CString (char*)
        private fun native_int_to_s(nstr: CString, strlen: Int) `{
                snprintf(nstr, strlen, "%ld", self);
        `}

        # String representation of `self` in the given `base`
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 15.to_base(10) == "15"
        # assert 15.to_base(16) == "f"
        # assert 15.to_base(2) == "1111"
        # assert (-10).to_base(3) == "-101"
        # ~~~
        fun to_base(base: Int): String
        do
                var l = digit_count(base)
                var s = new Buffer
                s.enlarge(l)
                for x in [0..l[ do s.add(' ')
                fill_buffer(s, base)
                return s.to_s
        end


        # return displayable int in hexadecimal
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 1.to_hex  == "1"
        # assert (-255).to_hex  == "-ff"
        # ~~~
        fun to_hex: String do return to_base(16)
end

redef class Float
        # Pretty representation of `self`, with decimals as needed from 1 to a maximum of 3
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 12.34.to_s       == "12.34"
        # assert (-0120.030).to_s == "-120.03"
        # assert (-inf).to_s == "-inf"
        # assert (nan).to_s == "nan"
        # ~~~
        #
        # see `to_precision` for a custom precision.
        redef fun to_s do
                var str = to_precision(3)
                return adapt_number_of_decimal(str, false)
        end

        # Return the representation of `self`, with scientific notation
        #
        # Adpat the number of decimals as needed from 1 to a maximum of 6
        # ~~~
        # assert 12.34.to_sci       == "1.234e+01"
        # assert 123.45.to_sci.to_f.to_sci  == "1.2345e+02"
        # assert 0.001234.to_sci  == "1.234e-03"
        # assert (inf).to_sci == "inf"
        # assert (nan).to_sci == "nan"
        # ~~~
        fun to_sci: String
        do
                var is_inf_or_nan = check_inf_or_nan
                if is_inf_or_nan != null then return is_inf_or_nan
                return adapt_number_of_decimal(return_from_specific_format("%e".to_cstring), true)
        end

        # Return the `string_number` with the adapted number of decimal (i.e the fonction remove the useless `0`)
        # `is_expo` it's here to specifi if the given `string_number` is in scientific notation
        private fun adapt_number_of_decimal(string_number: String, is_expo: Bool): String
        do
                # check if `self` does not need an adaptation of the decimal
                if is_inf != 0 or is_nan then return string_number
                var len = string_number.length
                var expo_value = ""
                var numeric_value = ""
                for i in [0..len-1] do
                        var j = len - 1 - i
                        var c = string_number.chars[j]
                        if not is_expo then
                                if c == '0' then
                                        continue
                                else if c == '.' then
                                        numeric_value = string_number.substring( 0, j + 2)
                                        break
                                else
                                        numeric_value = string_number.substring( 0, j + 1)
                                        break
                                end
                        else if c == 'e' then
                                expo_value = string_number.substring( j, len - 1 )
                                is_expo = false
                        end
                end
                return numeric_value + expo_value
        end

        # Return a string representation of `self` in fonction if it is not a number or infinity.
        # Return `null` if `self` is not a not a number or an infinity
        private fun check_inf_or_nan: nullable String
        do
                if is_nan then return "nan"

                var isinf = self.is_inf
                if isinf == 1 then
                        return "inf"
                else if isinf == -1 then
                        return  "-inf"
                end
                return null
        end

        # `String` representation of `self` with the given number of `decimals`
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 12.345.to_precision(0)    == "12"
        # assert 12.345.to_precision(3)    == "12.345"
        # assert (-12.345).to_precision(3) == "-12.345"
        # assert (-0.123).to_precision(3)  == "-0.123"
        # assert 0.999.to_precision(2)     == "1.00"
        # assert 0.999.to_precision(4)     == "0.9990"
        # ~~~
        fun to_precision(decimals: Int): String
        do
                var is_inf_or_nan = check_inf_or_nan
                if is_inf_or_nan != null then return is_inf_or_nan
                return return_from_specific_format("%.{decimals}f".to_cstring)
        end

        # Returns the hexadecimal (`String`) representation of `self` in exponential notation
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 12.345.to_hexa_exponential_notation    == "0x1.8b0a3d70a3d71p+3"
        # assert 12.345.to_hexa_exponential_notation.to_f == 12.345
        # ~~~
        fun to_hexa_exponential_notation: String
        do
                return return_from_specific_format("%a".to_cstring)
        end

        # Return the representation of `self`, with the specific given c `format`.
        private fun return_from_specific_format(format: CString): String
        do
                var size = to_precision_size_with_format(format)
                var cstr = new CString(size + 1)
                to_precision_fill_with_format(format, size + 1, cstr)
                return cstr.to_s_unsafe(byte_length = size, copy = false)
        end

        # The lenght of `self` in the specific given c `format`
        private fun to_precision_size_with_format(format: CString): Int`{
                return snprintf(NULL, 0, format, self);
        `}

        # Fill `cstr` with `self` in the specific given c `format`
        private fun to_precision_fill_with_format(format: CString, size: Int, cstr: CString) `{
                snprintf(cstr, size, format, self);
        `}
end

redef class Char

        # Returns a sequence with the UTF-8 bytes of `self`
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 'a'.bytes == [0x61]
        # assert 'ま'.bytes == [0xE3, 0x81, 0xBE]
        # ~~~
        fun bytes: SequenceRead[Int] do return to_s.bytes

        # Is `self` an UTF-16 surrogate pair ?
        fun is_surrogate: Bool do
                var cp = code_point
                return cp >= 0xD800 and cp <= 0xDFFF
        end

        # Is `self` a UTF-16 high surrogate ?
        fun is_hi_surrogate: Bool do
                var cp = code_point
                return cp >= 0xD800 and cp <= 0xDBFF
        end

        # Is `self` a UTF-16 low surrogate ?
        fun is_lo_surrogate: Bool do
                var cp = code_point
                return cp >= 0xDC00 and cp <= 0xDFFF
        end

        # Length of `self` in a UTF-8 String
        fun u8char_len: Int do
                var c = self.code_point
                if c < 0x80 then return 1
                if c <= 0x7FF then return 2
                if c <= 0xFFFF then return 3
                if c <= 0x10FFFF then return 4
                # Bad character format
                return 1
        end

        # ~~~
        # assert 'x'.to_s    == "x"
        # ~~~
        redef fun to_s do
                var ln = u8char_len
                var ns = new CString(ln + 1)
                u8char_tos(ns, ln)
                return ns.to_s_unsafe(ln, copy=false, clean=false)
        end

        # Returns `self` escaped to UTF-16
        #
        # i.e. Represents `self`.`code_point` using UTF-16 codets escaped
        # with a `\u`
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 'A'.escape_to_utf16 == "\\u0041"
        # assert 'è'.escape_to_utf16 == "\\u00e8"
        # assert 'あ'.escape_to_utf16 == "\\u3042"
        # assert '𐏓'.escape_to_utf16 == "\\ud800\\udfd3"
        # ~~~
        fun escape_to_utf16: String do
                var cp = code_point
                var buf: Buffer
                if cp < 0xD800 or (cp >= 0xE000 and cp <= 0xFFFF) then
                        buf = new Buffer.with_cap(6)
                        buf.append("\\u0000")
                        var hx = cp.to_hex
                        var outid = 5
                        for i in hx.chars.reverse_iterator do
                                buf[outid] = i
                                outid -= 1
                        end
                else
                        buf = new Buffer.with_cap(12)
                        buf.append("\\u0000\\u0000")
                        var lo = (((cp - 0x10000) & 0x3FF) + 0xDC00).to_hex
                        var hi = ((((cp - 0x10000) & 0xFFC00) >> 10) + 0xD800).to_hex
                        var out = 2
                        for i in hi do
                                buf[out] = i
                                out += 1
                        end
                        out = 8
                        for i in lo do
                                buf[out] = i
                                out += 1
                        end
                end
                return buf.to_s
        end

        private fun u8char_tos(r: CString, len: Int) `{
                r[len] = '\0';
                switch(len){
                        case 1:
                                r[0] = self;
                                break;
                        case 2:
                                r[0] = 0xC0 | ((self & 0x7C0) >> 6);
                                r[1] = 0x80 | (self & 0x3F);
                                break;
                        case 3:
                                r[0] = 0xE0 | ((self & 0xF000) >> 12);
                                r[1] = 0x80 | ((self & 0xFC0) >> 6);
                                r[2] = 0x80 | (self & 0x3F);
                                break;
                        case 4:
                                r[0] = 0xF0 | ((self & 0x1C0000) >> 18);
                                r[1] = 0x80 | ((self & 0x3F000) >> 12);
                                r[2] = 0x80 | ((self & 0xFC0) >> 6);
                                r[3] = 0x80 | (self & 0x3F);
                                break;
                }
        `}

        # Returns true if the char is a numerical digit
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert '0'.is_numeric
        # assert '9'.is_numeric
        # assert not 'a'.is_numeric
        # assert not '?'.is_numeric
        # ~~~
        #
        # FIXME: Works on ASCII-range only
        fun is_numeric: Bool
        do
                return self >= '0' and self <= '9'
        end

        # Returns true if the char is an alpha digit
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 'a'.is_alpha
        # assert 'Z'.is_alpha
        # assert not '0'.is_alpha
        # assert not '?'.is_alpha
        # ~~~
        #
        # FIXME: Works on ASCII-range only
        fun is_alpha: Bool
        do
                return (self >= 'a' and self <= 'z') or (self >= 'A' and self <= 'Z')
        end

        # Is `self` an hexadecimal digit ?
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 'A'.is_hexdigit
        # assert not 'G'.is_hexdigit
        # assert 'a'.is_hexdigit
        # assert not 'g'.is_hexdigit
        # assert '5'.is_hexdigit
        # ~~~
        fun is_hexdigit: Bool do return (self >= '0' and self <= '9') or (self >= 'A' and self <= 'F') or
                                        (self >= 'a' and self <= 'f')

        # Returns true if the char is an alpha or a numeric digit
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert 'a'.is_alphanumeric
        # assert 'Z'.is_alphanumeric
        # assert '0'.is_alphanumeric
        # assert '9'.is_alphanumeric
        # assert not '?'.is_alphanumeric
        # ~~~
        #
        # FIXME: Works on ASCII-range only
        fun is_alphanumeric: Bool
        do
                return self.is_numeric or self.is_alpha
        end

        # Returns `self` to its int value
        #
        # REQUIRE: `is_hexdigit`
        fun from_hex: Int do
                if self >= '0' and self <= '9' then return code_point - 0x30
                if self >= 'A' and self <= 'F' then return code_point - 0x37
                if self >= 'a' and self <= 'f' then return code_point - 0x57
                # Happens if self is not a hexdigit
                assert self.is_hexdigit
                # To make flow analysis happy
                abort
        end
end

redef class Collection[E]
        # String representation of the content of the collection.
        #
        # The standard representation is the list of elements separated with commas.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert [1,2,3].to_s == "[1,2,3]"
        # assert [1..3].to_s  == "[1,2,3]"
        # assert (new Array[Int]).to_s == "[]" # empty collection
        # ~~~
        #
        # Subclasses may return a more specific string representation.
        redef fun to_s
        do
                return "[" + join(",") + "]"
        end

        # Concatenate elements without separators
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert [1,2,3].plain_to_s == "123"
        # assert [11..13].plain_to_s  == "111213"
        # assert (new Array[Int]).plain_to_s == "" # empty collection
        # ~~~
        fun plain_to_s: String
        do
                var s = new Buffer
                for e in self do if e != null then s.append(e.to_s)
                return s.to_s
        end

        # Concatenate and separate each elements with `separator`.
        #
        # Only concatenate if `separator == null`.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert [1, 2, 3].join(":")    == "1:2:3"
        # assert [1..3].join(":")       == "1:2:3"
        # assert [1..3].join            == "123"
        # ~~~
        #
        # if `last_separator` is given, then it is used to separate the last element.
        #
        # ~~~
        # assert [1, 2, 3, 4].join(", ", " and ")    == "1, 2, 3 and 4"
        # ~~~
        fun join(separator: nullable Text, last_separator: nullable Text): String
        do
                if is_empty then return ""

                var s = new Buffer # Result

                # Concat first item
                var i = iterator
                var e = i.item
                if e != null then s.append(e.to_s)

                if last_separator == null then last_separator = separator

                # Concat other items
                i.next
                while i.is_ok do
                        e = i.item
                        i.next
                        if i.is_ok then
                                if separator != null then s.append(separator)
                        else
                                if last_separator != null then s.append(last_separator)
                        end
                        if e != null then s.append(e.to_s)
                end
                return s.to_s
        end
end

redef class Map[K,V]
        # Concatenate couples of key value.
        # Key and value are separated by `couple_sep`.
        # Couples are separated by `sep`.
        #
        # ~~~
        # var m = new HashMap[Int, String]
        # m[1] = "one"
        # m[10] = "ten"
        # assert m.join("; ", "=") == "1=one; 10=ten"
        # ~~~
        fun join(sep, couple_sep: String): String is abstract
end

redef class Sys
        private var args_cache: nullable Sequence[String] = null

        # The arguments of the program as given by the OS
        fun program_args: Sequence[String]
        do
                if _args_cache == null then init_args
                return _args_cache.as(not null)
        end

        # The name of the program as given by the OS
        fun program_name: String
        do
                return native_argv(0).to_s
        end

        # Initialize `program_args` with the contents of `native_argc` and `native_argv`.
        private fun init_args
        do
                var argc = native_argc
                var args = new Array[String].with_capacity(0)
                var i = 1
                while i < argc do
                        args[i-1] = native_argv(i).to_s
                        i += 1
                end
                _args_cache = args
        end

        # First argument of the main C function.
        private fun native_argc: Int is intern

        # Second argument of the main C function.
        private fun native_argv(i: Int): CString is intern
end

# Comparator that efficienlty use `to_s` to compare things
#
# The comparaison call `to_s` on object and use the result to order things.
#
# ~~~
# var a = [1, 2, 3, 10, 20]
# (new CachedAlphaComparator).sort(a)
# assert a == [1, 10, 2, 20, 3]
# ~~~
#
# Internally the result of `to_s` is cached in a HashMap to counter
# uneficient implementation of `to_s`.
#
# Note: it caching is not usefull, see `alpha_comparator`
class CachedAlphaComparator
        super Comparator
        redef type COMPARED: Object

        private var cache = new HashMap[Object, String]

        private fun do_to_s(a: Object): String do
                if cache.has_key(a) then return cache[a]
                var res = a.to_s
                cache[a] = res
                return res
        end

        redef fun compare(a, b) do
                return do_to_s(a) <=> do_to_s(b)
        end
end

# see `alpha_comparator`
private class AlphaComparator
        super Comparator
        redef fun compare(a, b) do
                if a == b then return 0
                if a == null then return -1
                if b == null then return 1
                return a.to_s <=> b.to_s
        end
end

# Stateless comparator that naively use `to_s` to compare things.
#
# Note: the result of `to_s` is not cached, thus can be invoked a lot
# on a single instace. See `CachedAlphaComparator` as an alternative.
#
# ~~~
# var a = [1, 2, 3, 10, 20]
# alpha_comparator.sort(a)
# assert a == [1, 10, 2, 20, 3]
# ~~~
fun alpha_comparator: Comparator do return once new AlphaComparator

# The arguments of the program as given by the OS
fun args: Sequence[String]
do
        return sys.program_args
end

redef class CString

        # Get a `String` from the data at `self` (with unsafe options)
        #
        # The default behavior is the safest and equivalent to `to_s`.
        #
        # Options:
        #
        # * Set `byte_length` to the number of bytes to use as data.
        #   Otherwise, this method searches for a terminating null byte.
        #
        # * Set `char_length` to the number of Unicode character in the string.
        #   Otherwise, the data is read to count the characters.
        #   Ignored if `clean == true`.
        #
        # * If `copy == true`, the default, copies the data at `self` in the
        #   Nit GC allocated memory. Otherwise, the return may still point to
        #   the data at `self`.
        #
        # * If `clean == true`, the default, the string is cleaned of invalid UTF-8
        #   characters. If cleaning is necessary, the data is copied into Nit GC
        #   managed memory, whether or not `copy == true`.
        #   Don't clean only when the data has already been verified as valid UTF-8,
        #   other library services rely on UTF-8 compliant characters.
        fun to_s_unsafe(byte_length, char_length: nullable Int, copy, clean: nullable Bool): String is abstract

        # Retro-compatibility service use by execution engines
        #
        # TODO remove this method at the next c_src regen.
        private fun to_s_full(byte_length, char_length: Int): String do return to_s_unsafe(byte_length, char_length, false, false)

        # Copies the content of `src` to `self`
        #
        # NOTE: `self` must be large enough to contain `self.byte_length` bytes
        fun fill_from(src: Text) do src.copy_to_native(self, src.byte_length, 0, 0)
end

redef class NativeArray[E]
        # Join all the elements using `to_s`
        #
        # REQUIRE: `self isa NativeArray[String]`
        # REQUIRE: all elements are initialized
        fun native_to_s: String is abstract
end